The most successful democratic politicians are those who succeed in abolishing democracy and becoming dictators. This, of course, is only possible in certain circumstances ; no one could have achieved it in nineteenth-century England. But when it is possible, it requires only a high degree of the same qualities as are required by democratic politicians in general, at any rate in excited times. Lenin, Mussolini, and Hitler owed their rise to democracy. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER03_210.HTM
The qualities which make a successful politician in a democracy vary according to the character of the times ; they are not the same in quiet times as they are during war or revolution. In quiet times, a man may succeed by giving an impression of solidity and sound judgment , but in times of excitement something more is needed. At such times, it is necessary to be an impressive speaker–not necessarily eloquent in the conventional sense, for Robespierre and Lenin were not eloquent , but determined, passionate, and bold. The passion may be cold and controlled, but must exist and be felt. In excited times, a politician needs no power of reasoning, no apprehension of impersonal facts, and no shred of wisdom. What he must have is the capacity of persuading the multitude that what they passionately desire is attainable, and that he, through his ruthless determination, is the man to attain it. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER03_200.HTM
Political power, in a democracy, tends to belong to men of a type which differs considerably from the three that we have considered hitherto. A politician, if he is to succeed, must be able to win the confidence of his machine, and then to arouse some degree of enthusiasm in a majority of the electorate. The qualities required for these two stages on the road to power are by no means identical, and many men possess the one without the other. Candidates for the Presidency in the United States are not infrequently men who cannot stir the imagination of the general public, though they possess the art of ingratiating themselves with party managers. Such men are, as a rule, defeated, but the party managers do not foresee their defeat. Sometimes, however, the machine is able to secure the victory of a man without “magnetism” ; in such cases, it dominates him after his election, and he never achieves real power. Sometimes, on the contrary, a man is able to create his own machine; Napoleon III, Mussolini, and Hitler are examples of this. More commonly, a really successful politician, though he uses an already existing machine, is able ultimately to dominate it and make it subservient to his will. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER03_190.HTM
規模の大きな経済組織の発達は,新しいタイプの強力な個人を生みだしてきた。(即ち)アメリカで呼ばれているところの”エグゼクティブ“(企業等の経営幹部や執行役員)である。典型的な「エグゼクティヴ」は,(自らを)迅速な決定を行い,即座に相手の性格(人間性)を読み取り,鉄の意志をもった人間であるという印象を,他人(人々)に与える。(また)このような人は,堅くひきしまった顎,きりっと結んだ唇,簡潔かつ鋭いスピーチをする習慣をもっていなくてはならない。彼は,同輩に敬意(尊敬の念)を起させ(inspire),有能な部下(注:subordinates who are by no means nonentities 決してとるに足りないものではない部下)には信頼を起こさせることができなくてはならない。(また)彼は,偉大なる将軍と偉大なる外交官の資質を併せ持っていなくてはならない。(即ち)戦いに臨んでは無慈悲だが,交渉に当っては巧みに譲歩する能力を持っていなくてはならない。このような資質によって,人は,重要な経済組織の支配(権)を獲得するのである。
Chapter III: The Forms of Power, n.18
The growth of large economic organizations has produced a new type of powerful individual: the “executive,” as he is called in America. The typical “executive” impresses others as a man of rapid decisions, quick insight into character, and iron will ; he must have a firm jaw, tightly closed lips, and a habit of brief and incisive speech. He must be able to inspire respect in equals, and confidence in subordinates who are by no means nonentities. He must combine the qualities of a great general and a great diplomatist: ruthlessness in battle, but a capacity for skilful concession in negotiation. It is by such qualities that men acquire control of important economic organizations. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER03_180.HTM
The truth is that the respect accorded to men of learning was never bestowed for genuine knowledge, but for the supposed possession of magical powers. Science, in giving some real acquaintance with natural processes, has destroyed the belief in magic, and therefore the respect for the intellectual. Thus it has come about that, while men of science are the fundamental cause of the features which distinguish our time from former ages, and have, through their discoveries and inventions, an immeasurable influence upon the course of events, they have not, as individuals, as great a reputation for wisdom as may be enjoyed in India by a naked fakir or in Melanesia by a medicine-man. The intellectuals, finding their prestige slipping from them as a result of their own activities, become dissatisfied with the modern world. Those in whom the dissatisfaction is least take to Communism; those in whom it goes deeper shut themselves up in their ivory tower. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER03_170.HTM
我々は既に奇妙な事実に気づいている(言及している)。それは,今日、知識は,以前のいかなる時代よりも,文明において大きな役割を果しているけれども,その新しい知識を持っている人々の間で,それに対応する権力の増大はまったく存在してこなかったという事実である。電気工(the electrician)や電話交換手(the telephone man)が我々にとって快適な(あるいは不快な)役に立つ不思議なことをするからといって,我々は彼らを祈祷師だとは思わないし,あるいはまた,もしこのような人々を我々が困らせると彼らは雷雨を起こすことができるとも想像しない。その理由は,科学的知識は難解であっても神秘的なものではなく,必要な労をとりたいと思う(労をとることを厭わない)全ての人々に開かれたものだからである。それゆえ,現代(近代)の知識人は,(人々に)畏敬の念を起こさせず(inspires no awe),単なる一被雇用者にとどまっている(のである)。カンタベリー大僧正のような2,3の例外を除いて,現代(近代)の知識人は,自分たちより以前の知識人に権力を与えてくれた魅力(glamour)を受継ぐことができなかったのである。
Chapter III: The Forms of Power, n.16
We have already noted the curious fact that, although knowledge plays a larger part in civilization now than at any former time, there has not been any corresponding growth of power among those who possess the new knowledge. Although the electrician and the telephone man do strange things that minister to our comfort (or discomfort), we do not regard them as medicine-men, or imagine that they can cause thunderstorms if we annoy them. The reason for this is that scientific knowledge, though difficult, is not mysterious, but open to all who care to take the necessary trouble. The modern intellectual, therefore, inspires no awe, but remains a mere employee; except in a few cases, such as the Archbishop of Canterbury, he has failed to inherit the glamour which gave power to his predecessors. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER03_160.HTM
紳士の典型的な美徳が名誉であるのに対して,学問(学識)を通して権力を得る人の美徳は知恵(英知)である。知恵(英知)がある者だとの評判を得るためには,人は多くの深遠な知識や自分の情熱に対する支配(抑制力)や人々(世間)の振る舞いについての長い経験を持っているように思われなければならない。年齢(歳を重ねること)のみがこれらの資質の何がしかのものを与えると考えられる。従って,「長老」(presbyter),「領主」(seigneur セニョール),「参事会員」(alderman),「年長者」(elder)というような言葉は敬語である(敬語となる)。 古代中国の乞食は通りがかりの人々(通行人)に「老太爺(ご隠居?)」(great old sire)と呼びかける。 しかし,賢者の権力が組織化されているところには,聖職者や学者の団体(組織)があり,あらゆる知恵(英知)が彼らの間に集中化されている考えられている。聖人は戦士(騎士/武士)とは非常に異なったタイプの性格を持っており,聖人が支配しているところには(戦士の支配しているところとは)全く別の社会が生まれる。(聖人が支配している)古代中国と(軍人が支配している戦前・戦中の)日本とは,そのような対照を例証している。
Chapter III: The Forms of Power, n.15
While the typical virtue of the gentleman is honour, that of the man who achieves power through learning is wisdom. To gain a reputation for wisdom a man must seem to have a store of recondite knowledge, a mastery over his passions, and a long experience of the ways of men. Age alone is thought to give something of these qualities; hence “presbyter,” “seigneur,” “alderman,” and “elder” are terms of respect. A Chinese beggar addresses passersby as “great old sire.” But where the power of wise men is organized, there is a corporation of priests or literati, among whom all wisdom is held to be concentrated. The sage is a very different type of character from the knightly warrior, and produces, where he rules, a very different society. China and Japan illustrate the contrast. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER03_150.HTM
知識人は,我々も知っているように,聖職者の精神上の子孫である。しかし,教育の普及は知識人から権力を奪いとってきた。知識人の権力は迷信に依存している。つまり,伝統的な(神のキリストへの)顕現(注:三位一体説など)や聖なる書物に対する敬意に依存している。これらのもののなかで,いくらかのものが英語を話す国々に生き残っている。たとえば,(英国の)戴冠式(即位式)での礼拝に対する英国人の態度とか,米国憲法に対するアメリカ人の敬意にそれを見ることができる。だからこそ(英国の)カンタベリー大主教(大僧正)や(米国の)最高裁判所判事が,今もなお,いくらかの学者の伝統的権力を持っているのである。しかし,こうしたものは,エジプトの聖職者や(古代の)中国の儒者の持っていた権力の亡霊(a pale ghost 青白い幽霊)に過ぎない。
Chapter III: The Forms of Power, n.14
The intellectual, as we know him, is a spiritual descendant of the priest ; but the spread of education has robbed him of power. The power of the intellectual depends upon superstition : reverence for a traditional incantation or a sacred book. Of these, something survives in English-speaking countries, as is seen in the English attitude to the Coronation Service and the American reverence for the Constitution ; accordingly, the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Supreme Court Judges sill have some of the traditional power of learned men. But this is only a pale ghost of the power of Egyptian priests or Chinese Confucian scholars. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER03_140.HTM
現実あるいは想像上の学問(学識)あるいは知恵を通して権力が得られる場合には,非常に異なったタイプの性格が前面に出てくる。この権力形態の最も重要な二つの実例は,伝統的な中国(注:traditional China = ancient China 古代中国)とカトリック教会である。その権力形態は,過去,大部分の時代に存在していたが,現代世界ではその形態は減少している。キリスト教会を別にすれば,英国ではこのタイプの権力はほとんど生き残っていない。とても奇妙なことだが,学問(学識)として通るものの力(権力)が最大となるのは,最も野蛮な社会においてであり,文明が進むにつれて,そうしたカは着実に減ってゆく。私が「学問(learning 学識)」という時,もちろん,魔術師や祈祷師(medicine men 呪術医)の学問(学識)のような,(当時)学問と称せられていたものも,私は含めている。(チベットの)ラサ大学では,博士の学位をとるためには20年にわたる研究が必要であり,この学位はダライ・ラマの地位以外のあらゆる高位の職に就くのに必要である。このような状態は,西暦一千年のヨーロッパの状態とほとんど同じである。当時は,法王シルヴュスター二世は本を読むという理由で魔術師(a magician)だと言われ(噂さされ),その結果,人々に形而上的な恐怖を与えて教会の権力を増すことができたのである。
Chapter III: The Forms of Power, n.13
A very different type of character comes to the fore where power is achieved through learning or wisdom, real or supposed. The two most important examples of this form of power are traditional China and the Catholic Church. There is less of it in the modern world than there has been at most times in the past; apart from the Church, in England, very little of this type of power remains. Oddly enough, the power of what passes for learning is greatest in the most savage communities, and steadily decreases as civilization advances. When I say “learning” I include, of course, reputed learning, such as that of magicians and medicine men. Twenty years of study are required in order to obtain a Doctor’s Degree at the University of Lhassa, which is necessary for all the higher posts except that of Dalai Lama. This position is much what it was in Europe in the year 1000, when Pope Silvester II was reputed a magician because he read books, and was consequently able to increase the power of the Church by inspiring metaphysical terrors. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER03_130.HTM
Hereditary power has given rise to our notion of a “gentleman.” This is a somewhat degenerate form of a conception which has a long history, from magic properties of chiefs, through the divinity of kings, to knightly chivalry and the blue-blooded aristocrat. The qualities which are admired, where power is hereditary, are such as result from leisure and unquestioned superiority. Where power is aristocratic rather than monarchical, the best manners include courteous behaviour towards equals as an addition to bland self-assertion in dealing with inferiors. But whatever the prevalent conception of manners may be, it is only where power is (or lately was) hereditary that men will be judged by their manners. The bourgeois gentilhomme is only laughable when he intrudes into a society of men and women who have never had anything better to do than study social niceties. What survives in the way of admiration of the “gentleman” depends upon inherited wealth, and must rapidly disappear if economic as well as political power ceases to pass from father to son. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER03_120.HTM