この時代は，はなはだ粗野な時代であったが，『薔薇物語』によって擁護された種類の恋愛は，司祭の言う意味では道徳的ではないけれども，洗練され，雄々しく，優しいものである。もちろん，そうした観念は，貴族階級のみのための（にとってふさわしい）ものであった。それは，余暇(があること)ばかりではなく，教会の圧政からある程度解放されていることを前提条件（事前に前提とされるもの）としていた。恋愛の動機が顕著である(トーナメント形式)馬上槍試合大会は，教会によって嫌悪されていたけれども，教会には馬上槍試合大会を禁止する（押さえつける）力はなかった。同様に，教会は，騎士的恋愛の制度を禁止すること（押さえつけること）はできなかった。現在の民主主義の時代においては，我々は，様々な（多くの）時代において世界が貴族階級にどれほど恩義を負っているか，ともすれば忘れがちである。この，恋愛の復活という事柄において，騎士道のロマンスによって前もって道が切り開かれていなかったなら，ルネッサンスもあれほどの成功を収めることはできなかった（にちがいない）
(注：if が省略され，倒置されていることに注意。「had the way not been prepared by chivalry」→「if the way had not been prepared by chivalry」)。
The age was one of extraordinary coarseness, but the kind of love advocated by the Romaunt of the Rose, while not virtuous in the priestly sense, is refined, gallant, and gentle. Such ideas were, of course, only for the aristocracy; they presupposed not only leisure, but a certain emancipation from ecclesiastical tyranny. Tournaments, in which motives of love were prominent, were abhorred by the Church, which however was powerless to suppress them; in like manner it could not suppress the system of knightly love. In our democratic age we are apt to forget what the world has owed at various times to aristocracies. Certainly in this matter of the revival of love the Renaissance could not have been so successful had the way not been prepared by chivalry.
出典： Marriage and Morals, 1929.
詳細情報：http://russell-j.com/beginner/MM06-070.HTM
けれども，フランスとブルゴーニュ(注：Burgundy シャルル豪胆公（在位：1467-1477）没後に男系が絶え，ヴァロワ朝フランスに併合された。)では，その発達の仕方が，イタリアの場合とまったく同一ではなかった。フランス貴族の恋愛観は，『バラ物語』(the Romaunt of the Rose)に支配されていたからである。この作品は，騎士の恋愛を扱っているが，その恋が満たされないままにしておくことを主張してはいなかった。それは，それどころか（実は），教会の教えに対する反感（の一つ）であり，人生における恋愛の正当な地位に対する（地位を求める）,事実上，異教の主張であった。
In France and Burgundy, however, the development was not quite the same as it had been in Italy, since French aristocratic ideas of love were dominated by the Romaunt of the Rose, which dealt with knightly love but did not insist upon its remaining unsatisfied. It was, in fact, a revulsion against the teaching of the Church and a virtually pagan assertion of love’s rightful place in life.
The existence of an upper class whose intellectual and moral notions are enshrined in an ars amandi remains a rather exceptional fact in history. In no other epoch did the ideal of civilization amalgamate to such a degree with that of love. Just as scholasticism represents the grand effort of the medieval spirit to unite all philosophic thought in a single centre, so the theory of courtly love, in a less elevated sphere, tends to embrace all that appertains to the noble life. The Roman de la Rose did not destroy the system; it only modified its tendencies and enriched its contents. (note: Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages, pp. 95-96.)
出典： Marriage and Morals, 1929.
詳細情報：http://russell-j.com/beginner/MM06-060.HTM
これに対して，宮廷詩は，欲求そのものを主要なモチーフとし，そのために，否定的な基調（negative ground-note）を帯びた恋愛の概念が創造されている。新しい詩的理想は，官能的な恋愛との関連をすっかりあきらめることなく，あらゆる倫理的願望を取り入れることができた。恋愛は，いまや，あらゆる道徳的・文化的な完璧さが花開く場所となった。恋する宮廷人は，その恋愛ゆえに，純粋かつ有徳であった。精神的要素がますます支配的になり，ついに，13世紀の末ごろに，ダンテとその仲間たちの清新体(派)（注：Dolce Stil Novo 13世紀イタリアの文学運動）は，結局，神を敬い，神を直観する状態をもたらす才能は恋愛にあり（恋愛に帰せられる）として終わる（とするようになる)。
ここで，一つの極限に達したのである。イタリアの詩は，徐々に，恋愛感情のより高踏的でない表現に立ち返らなければならなかった。ペトラルカは，精神化(霊化)された恋愛と，古代のモデルのもっと自然な魅力との間で揺れ動いている（注：is divided between どちらを選ぶべきかで迷っている）。間もなく，宮廷恋愛の不自然な方式は捨てられる。そして，その微妙な区別は復活することはないだろう。そしてそのときには，すでに宮廷的な恋愛観に潜んでいたルネッサンスのプラトン主義が，精神的な傾向を持った恋愛詩の新しい形式を生み出す（のである）。
One of the best accounts known to me of love in the later Middle Ages is to be found in Huizinga’s book on The Waning of the Middle Ages (1924).
When in the twelfth century [he says] unsatisfied desire was placed by the troubadours of Provence in the centre of the poetic conception of love, an important turn in the history of civilization was effected. Antiquity, too, had sung the sufferings of love, but it had never conceived them save as the expectation of happiness or as its pitiful frustration. The sentimental point of Pyramus and Thisbe, of Cephalus and Procris, lies in their tragic end; in the heartrending loss of a happiness already enjoyed. Courtly poetry, on the other hand, makes desire itself the essential motif, and so creates a conception of love with a negative ground-note. Without giving up all connection with sensual love, the new poetic ideal was capable of embracing all kinds of ethical aspirations. Love now became the field where all moral and cultural perfection flowered. Because of his love, the courtly lover is pure and virtuous. The spiritual element dominates more and more, till towards the end of the thirteenth century, the dolce stil nuovo of Dante and his friends ends by attributing to love the gift of bringing about a state of piety and holy intuition. Here an extreme had been reached. Italian poetry was gradually to find its way back to a less exalted expression of erotic sentiment. Petrarch is divided between the ideal of spiritualized love and the more natural charm of antique models. Soon the artificial system of courtly love is abandoned, and its subtle distinctions will not be revived, when the Platonism of the Renaissance, latent, already, in the courtly conception, gives rise to new forms of erotic poetry with a spiritual tendency.
出典： Marriage and Morals, 1929.
詳細情報：http://russell-j.com/beginner/MM06-050.HTM
ロマンチックな恋愛は中世(時代)以前には知られていなかったと言えば正しくないであろう。しかし，ロマンチックな恋愛が，一般に認められた情熱の一形式（一形態）となったのは，ようやく中世になってからである。ロマンチックな恋愛の本質は，最愛の対象を，非常に手に入れ難くかつ非常に貴重な存在と見なすことにある。ロマンチックな恋愛は，それゆえ，詩により，あるいは歌により，あるいは武勲により（ by feats of arms），あるいは，その他，その貴婦人(lady)の一番喜びそうに思われるやり方で，最愛の対象の愛を勝ち得るために（その男に）大変な努力をさせる（ことになる）。貴婦人には測り知れない価値があるという信念は，彼女を手に入れることの困難さが(人間の)心理に及ぼす効果(影響)であり，男性が容易にその女性を手に入れることができる場合には，男性の女性に対する感情は，ロマンチックな恋愛の形をとらない，と断言（主張）してよいと思われる。
中世の高貴な精神の持ち主は，この地上の生活を悪しきものと考えていた。我々人間の本能は，彼らにとっては，腐敗と原罪の所産であった。彼らは，肉体と色欲を憎んだ。彼らにとっては，純粋な喜びは，性的な混ざりものを一切含まないと思われる,恍惚とした瞑想の中でのみ見いだされる（のであった）。恋愛の領域では，このような見方は，ダンテに見るような態度をもたらさざるをえなかった。ある女性を熱愛しかつ尊敬している男性は，彼女と性交の観念とを結びつけることができなかったであろう。なぜなら，あらゆる性交は，彼にとっては，多かれ少なかれ，不純なものであったからである。そこで，彼の恋愛は，詩的で想像力に富む形式をとり，自然と（当然），象徴性に満ちあふれたものになったのである。この文学への影響は，皇帝フリードリヒ二世の宮廷に始まり，ルネッサンスに花開くまでの，恋愛詩の漸進的な発展に見られるように，賞賛すべきものである。
To say that romantic love was unknown before the Middle Ages would not be correct, but it was only in the Middle Ages that it became a commonly recognized form of passion. The essential of romantic love is that it regards the beloved object as very difficult to possess and as very precious. It makes therefore great efforts of many kinds to win the love of the beloved object, by poetry, by song, by feats of arms, or by whatever other method may be thought most pleasing to the lady. The belief in the immense value of the lady is a psychological effect of the difficulty of obtaining her, and I think it may be laid down that when a man has no difficulty in obtaining a woman, his feeling towards her does not take the form of romantic love. Romantic love, as it appears in the Middle Ages, was not directed, at first, towards women with whom the lover could have either legitimate or illegitimate sexual relations ; it was directed towards women of the highest respectability, who were separated from their romantic lovers by insuperable barriers of morality and convention. So thoroughly had the Church performed its task of making men feel sex inherently impure, that it had become impossible to feel any poetic sentiment towards a lady unless she was regarded as unattainable. Accordingly love, if it was to have any beauty, had to be platonic. It is very difficult for the modern to feel in imagination the psychology of the poet lovers in the Middle Ages. They profess ardent devotion without any desire for intimacy, and this seems to a modern so curious that he is apt to regard their love as no more than a literary convention. Doubtless on occasion it was no more than this, and doubtless its literary expression was dominated by conventions. But the love of Dante for Beatrice, as expressed in the Vita Nuova, is certainly not merely conventional ; I should say, on the contrary, that it is an emotion more passionate than any known to most moderns. The nobler spirits of the Middle Ages thought ill of this terrestrial life ; our human instincts were to them the products of corruption and original sin; they hated the body and its lusts; pure joy was to them only possible in ecstatic contemplation of a kind that seemed to them free from all sexual alloy. In the sphere of love, this outlook could not but produce the kind of attitude which we find in Dante. A man who deeply loved and respected a woman would find it impossible to associate with her the idea of sexual intercourse, since all sexual intercourse would be to him more or less impure; his love would therefore take poetic and imaginative forms, and would naturally become filled with symbolism. The effect of all this upon literature was admirable, as may be seen in the gradual development of love poetry, from its beginning in the court of the Emperor Frederick II to its flowering in the Renaissance.
出典： Marriage and Morals, 1929.
詳細情報：http://russell-j.com/beginner/MM06-040.HTM
しかし，このような,長々と連鎖する教会会議や教会史の著者の挙げる証拠に抵抗することは不可能である。彼らは，単に妾を囲うことよりもずっと大きな害悪を描写している（からである）。司祭が現実に妻をめとった場合，この関係は不法であるという自覚がことに彼らの貞操(観念)にとって致命的であり，そのために重婚や極度の移り気（mobility of attachments）が，特に，彼らの間で一般的に見られたと言われている（It was obserbed that ）。
中世の作家（の著作)は，売春宿のごとき女子修道院，女子修道院内でのおびただしい数の嬰児殺し，聖職者の間に常習的に蔓延していた近親相姦に関する記述に満ちあふれている。近親相姦のために，司祭は母や姉妹と同居してはいけないという，この上もなく厳しい条令を出すことが，くりかえし，必要となった。不倫の愛（unnatural love）をほとんどこの世から根絶したのは，キリスト教の偉大な功績の一つであったが，そうした愛が修道院の中にすたれずに残っている，と何度も(more than onde 一度ならず/くりかえし)うわさになった。そして，宗教改革の少し前には,告解場が誘惑の目的で使用されているという苦情が高まり，かつ，頻繁になった。（レッキー『ヨーロッパ道徳史』第二巻，pp.350-351）
It was not surprising that, having once broken their vows and begun to live what they deemed a life of habitual sin, the clergy should soon have sunk far below the level of the laity. We may not lay much stress on such isolated instances of depravity as that of Pope John XXIII, who was condemned for incest, among many other crimes, and for adultery; or the abbot-elect of St. Augustine, at Canterbury, who in 1171 was found, on investigation, to have seventeen illegitimate children in a single village; or an abbot of St. Pelayo, in Spain, who in 1130 was proved to have kept not less than seventy concubines ; or Henry III, Bishop of Liege, who was deposed in 1274 for having sixty-five illegitimate children ; but it is impossible to resist the evidence of a long chain of Councils and ecclesiastical writers, who conspire in depicting far greater evils than simple concubinage. It was observed that when the priests actually took wives, the knowledge that these connections were illegal was peculiarly fatal to their fidelity, and bigamy and extreme mobility of attachments were especially common among them. The writers of the Middle Ages are full of accounts of nunneries that were like brothels, of the vast multitude of infanticides within their walls, and of that inveterate prevalence of incest among the clergy, which rendered it necessary again and again to issue the most stringent enactments that priests should not be permitted to live with their mothers or sisters. Unnatural love, which it had been one of the great services of Christianity almost to eradicate from the world, is more than once spoken of as lingering in the monasteries; and shortly before the Reformation, complaints became loud and frequent of the employment of the confessional for the purposes of debauchery.(W. E. H. I.ecky, History of Europcan Morals, vol. ii, pp. 350, 351.)
出典： Marriage and Morals, 1929.
詳細情報：http://russell-j.com/beginner/MM06-020.HTM
With the victory of Christianity and the barbarians, the relations of men and women sank to a pitch of brutality which had been unknown in the ancient world for many centuries. The ancient world was vicious, but not brutal. In the Dark Ages, religion and barbarism combined to degrade the sexual side of life. In marriage, the wife had no rights; outside marriage, since all was sin, there was no object in curbing the natural beastliness of the uncivilized male. The immorality of the Middle Ages was widespread and disgusting ; bishops lived in open sin with their own daughters, and archbishops promoted their male favourites to neighbouring sees. (note: Lea, History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages, vol. i, pp. 9, 14) There was a growing belief in the celibacy of the clergy, but practice did not keep pace with precept. Pope Gregory VII made immense exertions to cause priests to put away their concubines, yet so late as the time of Abelard we find him regarding it as possible, though scandalous, for him to marry Heloise. It was only towards the end of the thirteenth century that the celibacy of the clergy was rigidly enforced. The clergy, of course, continued to have illicit relations with women, though they could not give any dignity or beauty to these relations owing to the fact that they themselves considered them immoral and impure. Nor could the Church, in view of its ascetic outlook on sex, do anything whatever to beautify the conception of love. To do this was necessarily the work of the laity.
出典： Marriage and Morals, 1929.
詳細情報：http://russell-j.com/beginner/MM06-010.HTM
（レッキーによれば,教父たちの著作の中で）女性は，地獄(へ)の門として，（また）人間のあらゆる害悪の母として表現（象徴）された。女性は，自分が女性であるというまさにその考えだけで（＝女性であること自体を）恥じるべきである。女性は，自分がこの世にもたらした呪いのゆえに，絶えず悔い改める（懺悔の）生活を送らなければならない。女性は，自分の衣装を恥じるべきである。というのは，衣装こそは，女性の堕落を記憶に留めたものであるからである。女性は,特に自分の美を恥じるべきである。美は悪魔の最も有力な道具（instrument 手段）であるからである。（女性の）肉体美は，実際，絶えず，キリスト教会による非難の主題となった（のである）。ただし，不思議なことに，一つだけ例外とされていたようである。というのは，中世においては，司教たちの容姿の美しさが絶えず墓石の上で言及された（上に記された）と述べられてきているからである(has been observed)。女性は，紀元６世紀には，不純であるがゆえに，聖餐（注：せいさん：キリストを象徴するパンとぶどう酒）を素手で受け取ることをある地方の教会会議によって禁止されたことさえあった（のである）。女性たちの本質的に隷属的な地位は，絶えず維持されたのである。（注：レッキー『ヨーロッパ道徳史』第二巻，pp.357-358） 財産と相続の法律も，同じ意味で，女性の不利になるように改正された。そして，フランス革命の自由思想家の力によって，初めて，娘たちは，自分の相続権を回復したのである。
Chapter V Christian Ethics、n.13
The writings of the Fathers are full of invectives against Woman.
Woman was represented as the door of hell, as the mother of all human ills. She should be ashamed at the very thought that she is a woman. She should live in continual penance, on account of the curses she has brought upon the world. She should be ashamed of her dress, for it is the memorial of her fall. She should be especially ashamed of her beauty, for it is the most potent instrument of the daemon. Physical beauty was indeed perpetually the theme of ecclesiastical denunciations, though one singular exception seems to have been made; for it has been observed that in the Middle Ages the personal beauty of bishops was continually noticed upon their tombs. Women were even forbidden by a provincial Council, in the sixth century, on account of their impurity, to receive the Eucharist into their naked hands. Their essentially subordinate position was continually maintained. (note: W. E. H. Lecky, History of European Morals, vol. ii, pp. 357-358)
The laws of property and inheritance were altered in the same sense against women, and it was only through the freethinkers of the French Revolution that daughters recovered their rights of inheritance.
出典： Marriage and Morals, 1929.
詳細情報：http://russell-j.com/beginner/MM05-130.HTM
The Christian ethics inevitably, through the emphasis laid upon sexual virtue, did a great deal to degrade the position of women. Since the moralists were men, woman appeared as the temptress ; if they had been women, man would have had this ro1e.
Since woman was the temptress, it was desirable to curtail her opportunities for leading men into temptation ; consequently respectable women were more hedged about with restrictions, while the women who were not respectable, being regarded as sinful, were treated with the utmost contumely. It is only in quite modern times that women have regained the degree of freedom which they enjoyed in the Roman Empire. The patriarchal system, as we saw, did much to enslave women, but a great deal of this was undone just before the rise of Christianity. After Constantine, women’s freedom was again curtailed under the pretence of protecting them from sin. It is only with the decay of the notion of sin in modern times that women have begun to regain their freedom.
出典： Marriage and Morals, 1929.
詳細情報：http://russell-j.com/beginner/MM05-120.HTM
倫理上の話題について明噺に考えてみたい人に対しては，（他ならぬ）この点において（in this particular）ベンサムを真似ることを私はお薦めしたい。そして，非難を伝える語のほとんどすべてには，称賛を伝える同意語があるという事実に慣れたあとで，称賛も非難も伝えない語を使用する習慣を身につけることをお薦めする。「不貞（adultery）」も「姦通（私通）（fornication）」も，非常に強い道徳的な非難を伝える語であるので，そういう語が使用されている限り，明噺にものを考えることは困難である。
あらゆる性的な事柄に関して，当事者の観点から記述するか，それとも，ねたみ深い部外者の観点から記述するかによって，極端が存在する（生じる）。我々自身がすることは「勇敢な（恋愛）行為」であり，他人がすることは「姦通（私通）」になる。それゆえ，情緒的な色彩を帯びた言葉も忘れないようにしなければならない。そして，時折，我々もそれを使用するかもしれない（使用してもよいだろう）。しかし，控えめにそうしなければならない。そして，大部分においては（in the main），中立的かつ科学的に精確な言葉遣い（表現法）で満足しなければならない。
Chapter V Christian Ethics、n.11
Jeremy Bentham made a table of the springs of action, where every human desire was named in three parallel columns, according as men wish to praise it, to blame it, or to treat it neutrally. Thus we find in one column “gluttony”, and opposite it, in the next column, “love of the pleasures of the social board”. And again, we find in the column giving eulogistic names to impulses, “public spirit”, and opposite to it, in the next column, we find “spite”. I recommend anybody who wishes to think clearly on any ethical topic to imitate Bentham in this particular, and after accustoming himself to the fact that almost every word conveying blame has a synonym conveying praise, to acquire a habit of using words that convey neither praise nor blame. Both “adultery” and “fornication” are words conveying such immensely strong moral reprobation that so long as they are employed it is difficult to think clearly. There are, however, other words used by those lascivious writers who wish to corrupt our morals: such writers will speak of “gallantry”, or “love unfettered by the cold bonds of law”. Both sets of terms are designed to arouse prejudices ; if we wish to think dispassionately, we must eschew the one set just as much as the other. Unfortunately this must inevitably ruin our literary style. Both words of praise and words of blame are colourful and interesting. The reader can be carried along by an invective or panegyric, and with a little skill his emotions can be aroused by the author in any desired direction. We, however, wish to appeal to reason, and we must therefore employ dull neutral phrases, such as “extra-marital sexual relations”. Yet perhaps this is too austere a precept, for after all we are dealing with a matter in which human emotions are very strongly involved, and if we eliminate emotion too completely from our writing, we may fail to convey the nature of the subject-matter with which we are dealing. In regard to all sexual matters there is a polarity according as they are described from the point of view of the participants or from that of jealous outsiders. What we do ourselves is “gallantry” ; what others do is “fornication”. We must therefore remember the emotionally coloured terms, and we may employ them on occasion; but we must do so sparingly, and, in the main, we must content ourselves with neutral and scientifically accurate phraseology.
出典： Marriage and Morals, 1929.
詳細情報：http://russell-j.com/beginner/MM05-110.HTM
It is clear that the whole system of Christian ethics, both in the Catholic and the Protestant forms, requires to be re-examined, as far as possible without the preconceptions to which a Christian education predisposes most of us. Emphatic and reiterated assertion, especially during childhood, produces in most people a belief so firm as to have a even over the unconscious, and many of us who imagine that our attitude towards orthodoxy is quite emancipated are still, in fact, subconsciously controlled by its teachings. We must ask ourselves quite frankly what led the Church to condemn all fornication. Do we think that it had valid grounds for this condemnation? Or, if we do not, are there grounds, other than those adduced by the Church, which ought to lead us to the same conclusion? The attitude of the early Church was that there is something essentially impure in the sexual act, although this act must be excused when it is performed after fulfilling certain preliminary conditions. This attitude in itself must be regarded as purely superstitious ; the reasons which led to its adoption were presumably those which were considered in the last chapter as liable to cause an anti-sexual attitude, that is to say, those who first inculcated such a view must have suffered from a diseased condition of body or mind, or both. The fact that an opinion has been widely held is no evidence whatever that it is not utterly absurd ; indeed, in view of the silliness of the majority of mankind, a widespread belief is more likely to be foolish than sensible. The Pelew Islanders believe that the perforation of the nose is necessary for winning eternal bliss. (note: Westermarck, op. cit., p. 170). Europeans think that this end is better attained by wetting the head while pronouncing certain words. The belief of the Pelew Islanders is a superstition ; the belief of the Europeans is one of the truths of our holy religion.
出典： Marriage and Morals, 1929.
詳細情報：http://russell-j.com/beginner/MM05-100.HTM
この時代は，はなはだ粗野な時代であったが，『薔薇物語』によって擁護された種類の恋愛は，司祭の言う意味では道徳的ではないけれども，洗練され，雄々しく，優しいものである。もちろん，そうした観念は，貴族階級のみのための（にとってふさわしい）ものであった。それは，余暇(があること)ばかりではなく，教会の圧政からある程度解放されていることを前提条件（事前に前提とされるもの）としていた。恋愛の動機が顕著である(トーナメント形式)馬上槍試合大会は，教会によって嫌悪されていたけれども，教会には馬上槍試合大会を禁止する（押さえつける）力はなかった。同様に，教会は，騎士的恋愛の制度を禁止すること（押さえつけること）はできなかった。現在の民主主義の時代においては，我々は，様々な（多くの）時代において世界が貴族階級にどれほど恩義を負っているか，ともすれば忘れがちである。この，恋愛の復活という事柄において，騎士道のロマンスによって前もって道が切り開かれていなかったなら，ルネッサンスもあれほどの成功を収めることはできなかった（にちがいない）
