There are many ways in which different societies differ in relation to power. They differ, to begin with, in the degree of power possessed by individuals or organizations ; it is obvious, for example, that, owing to increase of organization, the State has more power now than in former times. They differ, again, as regards the kind of organization that is most influential : a military despotism, a theocracy, a plutocracy, are very dissimilar types. They differ, thirdly, through diversity in the ways of acquiring power : hereditary kingship produces one kind of eminent man, the qualities required of a great ecclesiastic produce another kind, democracy produces a third kind, and war a fourth. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER01_070.HTM
本書のなかで,私は社会科学の根本概念は「権力」であることを証明したいと思っている(be concerned to prove 証明することに関心を持っている)。それは「エネルギー」が物理学の根本概念であるのと同じ意味でのことである。エネルギーと同様に権力には多くの形態がある。たとえば,富とか,軍備とか,文官の権力(や権威)(civil authority )とか,世論に及ぼす影響力といったものである。これらいずれの権力も他のいずれの権力に従属していると見ることはできず,また他の権力がある権力から派生するということもない。一つの形態の権力だけを,たとえば富という権力(だけ)を,孤立して扱おうとする試みは部分的にしかうまくいかない。それは,他の形態のエネルギーも考慮に入れなければ,一つの形態のエネルギーの研究(調査)(だけ)では何らかの点で欠点が出てくるだろうというのと丁度同じである。富が軍事力から出てくることもあれば,世論に及ぼす影響力から生れてくることもある。それはまたちょうど,軍事力や世論に及ぼす影響力のいずれも富から出てくることがあるのと同じである。社会力学の法則は,権力(一般)という観点(見地)から,のみ述べることができるものであって,特定の(あれこれの)権力形態の観点によってのべることができるものではない。昔は,軍事力は孤立して考えられており,その結果,(戦闘の)勝敗は司令官(指揮官)がたまたま有している(偶然の)資質に依存すると思われていた。今日では,経済力が他の種類の権力の源泉として考えるのが普通である。これは,純粋な軍事史家を時代遅れと思わせた彼らの(犯した)誤りと全く同じ誤りである、と私は(強く)主張する。さらに(again)(政治)宣伝が権力の根本的な形態だとする人もいる。これは決して新説ではない。(ラテン語の)「真理は偉大にして,また,広まるものなり(magna est veritas et praevalebit) 」とか,「殉教者の流す血は教会の種(教会を生む種子)である」といった古風な諺にも,はっきりと表現されている。それは軍事的な観点や経済的な観点とほぼ同程度(同量)の真理及び誤謬を含んでいる。政治宣伝は,もしほぼ異議のない(ほぼ満場一致の)世論をつくり出すことができれば,それは誰も抵抗することのできないほどのカを生み出すことができる。しかし,軍事力や経済力を持っている者は,もし選ぶとすれば,軍事力あるいは経済力を政治宣伝のために用いることができる。物理学のアナロジー(類推)にもどろう。(つまり)権力も,エネルギーと同様に,絶えずある形態から任意の別の形態へと移ってゆくものとして見なければならず,そういった変形の法則を探求することが社会科学の仕事でなければならない。ある形態の権力だけを分離させる試みは,今日,特に経済力という形態のみを分離して考えることは,実際上,非常に重要な誤りを犯す源となる。
Chapter 1: The Impulse to Power, n.6
In the course of this book I shall be concerned to prove that the fundamental concept in social science is Power, in the same sense in which Energy is the fundamental concept in physics. Like energy, power has many forms, such as wealth, armaments, ,civil authority, influence on opinion. No one of these can be regarded as subordinate to any other, and there is no one form from which the others are derivative. The attempt to treat one form of power, say wealth, in isolation, can only be partially successful, just as the study of one form of energy will be defective at certain points, unless other forms are taken into account. Wealth may result from military power or from influence over opinion, just as either of these may result from wealth. The laws of social dynamics are laws which can only be stated in terms of power, not in terms of this or that form of power. In former times, military power was isolated, with the consequence that victory or defeat appeared to depend upon the accidental qualities of commanders. In our day, it is common to treat economic power as the source from which all other kinds are derived; this, I shall contend, is just as great an error as that of the purely military historians whom it has caused to seem out of date. Again, there are those who regard propaganda as the fundamental form of power. This is by no means a new opinion; it is embodied in such traditional sayings as magna est veritas et praevalebit and “the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church.” It has about the same measure of truth and falsehood as the military view or the economic view. Propaganda, if it can create an almost unanimous opinion, can generate an irresistible power; but those who have military or economic control can, if they choose, use it for the purpose of propaganda. To revert to the analogy of physics: power, like energy, must be regarded as continually passing from any one of its forms into any other, and it should be the business of social science to seek the laws of such transformations. The attempt to isolate any one form of power, more especially, in our day, the economic form, has been, and still is, a source of errors of great practical importance. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER01_060.HTM
The orthodox economists, as well as Marx, who in this respect agreed with them, were mistaken in supposing that economic self-interest could be taken as the fundamental motive in the social sciences. The desire for commodities, when separated from power and glory, is finite, and can be fully satisfied by a moderate competence. The really expensive desires are not dictated by a love of material comfort. Such commodities as a legislature rendered subservient by corruption, or a private picture gallery of Old Masters selected by experts, are sought for the sake of power or glory, not as affording comfortable places in which to sit. When a moderate degree of comfort is assured, both individuals and communities will pursue power rather than wealth : they may seek wealth as a means to power, or they may forgo an increase of wealth in order to secure an increase of power, but in the former case as in the latter their fundamental motive is not economic. This error in orthodox and Marxist economics is not merely theoretical, but is of the greatest practical importance, and has caused some of the principal events of recent times to be misunderstood. It is only by realizing that love of power is the cause of the activities that are important in social affairs that history, whether ancient or modern, can be rightly interpreted. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER01_050.HTM
Of the infinite desires of man, the chief are the desires for power and glory. These are not identical, though closely allied : the Prime Minister has more power than glory, the King has more glory than power. As a rule, however, the easiest way to obtain glory is to obtain power; this is especially the case as regards the men who are active in relation to public events.The desire for glory, therefore, prompts, in the main, the same actions as are prompted by the desire for power, and the two motives may, for most practical purposes, be regarded as one. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER01_040.HTM
While animals are content with existence and reproduction, men desire also to expand, and their desires in this respect are limited only by what imagination suggests as possible. Every man would like to be God, if it were possible ; some few find it difficult to admit the impossibility. These are the men framed after the model of Milton’s Satan, combining, like him, nobility with impiety. By “impiety” I mean something not dependent upon theological beliefs: I mean refusal to admit the limitations of individual human power. This Titanic combination of nobility with impiety is most notable in the great conquerors, but some element of it is to be found in all men. It is this that makes social co-operation difficult, for each of us would like to conceive of it after the pattern of the co-operation between God and His worshippers, with ourself in the place of God. Hence competition, the need of compromise and government, the impulse to rebellion, with instability and periodic violence. And hence the need of morality to restrain anarchic self-assertion. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER01_030.HTM
また,我々も,稀にしかない瞬間に(おいて),完璧に幸福な瞬間があれば,オセロと同様に,死を願うのも自然だろう。満足というものは,永続きのしないものだと,我々は知っているからである。永久不変の幸福のために必要なものは,我々人間には(入手)不可能である。神だけが,完全な至福を享受できる(持つことができる)。それは「王国も権力も光栄」も,すべては神のもの(所有物)だからである(His と大文字の所有格になっていることに注意。つまり,「神の」「もの(所有物)/His is A → A is His の倒置形)。地上の王国は他の(敵対する)王国によって限界を設けられる(設けられている)。(即ち)地上の権力は,死のために切り詰められる(cut short 切り上げられる)。地上の光栄は,我々がビラミッドを建てたり,あるいは,また,「不滅の詩に嫁いだ」(注:John Milton の詩 L’Allegro にある言葉から/Wordsworth の Wisdom married to immortl verse はミルトンに倣ったものか?)にもかかわらず(としても),何世紀もの時(代)の経過とともに色あせてしまう。権力と光栄>をほとんど持っていない人々は,後もう少し権力があったらきっと満足するだろうと思うかも知れないが,この点で彼らの考えは間違っている。こういった欲望は,充たすことができず,無限なものであり,限界というものがない神においてのみ,永遠のやすらぎを見出すことができるものである(からである)。
Imagination is the goad that forces human beings into restless exertion alter their primary needs have been satisfied. Most of us have known very few moments when we could have said:
If it were now to die
“Twere now to be most happy, for I fear
My soul hath her content so absolute
That not another comfort like to this
Succeeds in unknown fate.
And in our rare moments of perfect happiness, it is natural, like Othello, to wish for death, since we know that contentment cannot last. What we need for lasting happiness is impossible for human beings : only God can have complete bliss, for His is “the kingdoms and the power and the glory. ” Earthly kingdoms are limited by other kingdoms; earthly power is cut short by death; earthly glory, though we build pyramids or be “married to immortal verse,” fades with the passing of centuries. To those who have but little of power and glory, it may seem that a little more would satisfy them, but in this they are mistaken : these desires are insatiable and infinite, and only in the infinitude of God could they find repose. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER01_020.HTM
Between man and other animals there are various differences, some intellectual, some emotional. One of the chief emotional differences is that some human desires, unlike those of animals, are essentially boundless and incapable of complete satisfaction. The boa constrictor, when he has had his meal, sleeps until appetite revives ; if other animals do not do likewise, it is because their meals are less adequate or because they fear enemies. The activities of animals, with few exceptions, are inspired by the primary needs of survival and reproduction, and do not exceed what these needs make imperative.
With men, the matter is different. A large proportion of the human race, it is true, is obliged to work so hard in obtaining necessaries that little energy is left over for other purposes; but those whose livelihood is assured do not, on that account, cease to be active. Xerxes had no lack of food or raiment or wives at the time when he embarked upon the Athenian expedition. Newton was certain of material comfort from the moment when he became a Fellow of Trinity, but it was after this that he wrote the Principia. St, Francis and Ignatius Loyola had no need to found Orders to escape from want. These were eminent men, but the same characteristic, in varying degrees, is to be found in all but a small exceptionally sluggish minority. Mrs. A, who is quite sure of her husband’s success in business, and has no fear of the workhouse, likes to be better dressed than Mrs. B, although she could escape the danger of pneumonia at much less expense. Both she and Mr. A are pleased if he is knighted or elected to Parliament. In day-dreams there is no limit to imagined triumphs, and if they are regarded as possible, efforts will be made to achieve them. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER01_010.HTM
私が説きたいと思う原理は,放縦の原理(licence 好き勝手にすればよいという原理)ではない。この原理は,因習的な原理とほとんど同じくらいの量の 自制を必要とする。しかし,自制は,自分自身の自由を抑制するよりも,(む しろ)他人の自由への干渉を控えることに適用されるだろう。最初から正しい 教育を施すなら,このように他人の人格や自由を尊重することは比較的容易になると期待してよいだろう,と私は考える。しかし,我々のうちで,美徳の名 において(名の下に)他人の行為を禁止(拒否)する権利がある(a right to place a veto upon),と信じるように育てられた人びとにとって(は),こ の愉快な迫害の形式を行使するのを差し控えることは,疑いもなく困難である 。(それどころか)不可能かもしれない。しかし,最初から,それほど拘束 的でない道徳を教えられた人びとにとっても,それが不可能であると推測してはならない。
The doctrine that I wish to preach is not one of licence ; it involves nearly as much self-control as is involved in the conventional doctrine. But self-control will be applied more to abstaining from interference with the freedom of others than to restraining one’s own freedom. It may, I think, be hoped that with the right education from the start this respect for the personality and freedom of others may become comparatively easy ; but for those of us who have been brought up to believe that we have a right to place a veto upon the actions of others in the name of virtue, it is undoubtedly difficult to forgo the exercise of this agreeable form of persecution. It may even be impossible. But it is not to be inferred that it would be impossible to those who had been taught from the first a less restrictive morality. The essence of a good marriage is respect for each other’s personality combined with that deep intimacy, physical, mental, and spiritual, which makes a serious love between man and woman the most fructifying of all human experiences. Such love, like everything that is great and precious, demands its own morality, and frequently entails a sacrifice of the less to the greater; but such sacrifice must be voluntary, for, where it is not, it will destroy the very basis of the love for the sake of which it is made. (end of text) 出典: Marriage and Morals, 1929. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/MM21-140.HTM
最初から正しく訓練された本能は,カルヴァン主義者の原罪信仰によって吹き込まれた教育から生じる結果よりも,ずっとよいものを生み出すことができる。しかし,そのような教育(注:カルヴァン主義による教育など)が悪い働きをするままにしておくならば,後年になってその影響を取り消すことはきわめて困難である。精神分析が世界に与えた最も重要な利益の一つは,幼年期初期に禁止したり,脅したりすることによる悪影響を発見したことである。この影響を取り除くには,精神分析的な治療の長い時間(all the time 治療に必要な長い時間)と技術が必要になるかもしれない(可能性がある)。これは,誰が見てもそれとわかるような損傷を受けた神経症患者のみにあてはまるのではない。一見(apparently 外見的には)正常に見える人びとの大部分にもあてはまるのである。
It must not be supposed that the sort of thing which a sane advocate of greater freedom desires is to be achieved at once by leaving adults, or even adolescents, who have been brought up under the old, severe, restrictive maxims to the unaided promptings of the damaged impulses which are all the moralist has left to them. This is a necessary stage, since otherwise they will bring up their children as badly as they were brought up; but it is no more than a stage. Sane freedom must be learnt from the earliest years, since otherwise the only freedom possible will be a frivolous, superficial freedom, not freedom of the whole personality. Trivial impulses will lead to physical excesses, while the spirit remains in fetters. Instinct rightly trained from the first can produce something much better than what results from an education inspired by a Calvinistic belief in original sin, but when such an education has been allowed to do its evil work, it is exceedingly difficult to undo the effect in later years. One of the most important benefits which psycho-analysis has conferred upon the world is its discovery of the bad effects of prohibitions and threats in early childhood ; to undo these effects may require all the time and technique of a psycho-analytic treatment. This is true not only of those obvious neurotics who have suffered damage visible to everyone; it is true also of most apparently normal people. I believe that nine out of ten who have had a conventional upbringing in their early years have become in some degree incapable of a decent and sane attitude towards marriage and sex generally. The kind of attitude and behaviour that I should regard as the best has been rendered impossible for such people; the best that can be done is to make them aware of the damage that they have sustained and to persuade them to abstain from maiming their children in the same way in which they have been maimed. 出典: Marriage and Morals, 1929. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/MM21-130.HTM
親の子供に対する義務は,自分は道徳的であると考えている多くの人びとによって,私にはとても正当と思えないくらい,軽く扱われている。両親揃った家族という現在の制度を前提とすれば,子供が生まれるやいなや,(夫婦が)仲のよい(調和のとれた)関係を保つために全力を尽くすことは,たとえそのためにかなりの自制が必要であったとしても,結婚の当事者双方の義務である。しかし,必要な自制は,因習的な道徳家が主張するように,単に,不義(不倫)へのあらゆる衝動を抑制することに関係する(伴う)ものだけではない。嫉妬,不機嫌,横柄さ(masterfulness 専横さ)などの衝動を抑制することも,同様に重要である。両親の間の深刻な喧嘩が,非常にしばしば子供の神経障害の原因になることは,疑いの余地がない。それゆえ,そういう喧嘩を防ぐために打てるだけの手を打たなければならない。 同時に,当事者の一方または双方に,不和を子供に知られないようにするだけの自制心がない場合は,たぶん,結婚を解消するほうがいいだろう(to prevent disagreements from coming to the knowledge of the children)。結婚の解消(離婚)は,子供の立場から見て,必ずしも,常にありうる最悪のケース(状況)だというわけではない。実際,結婚の解消は,荒げた声,激しい非難,もしかすると暴力さえも,といった光景ほど悪いものではない。そうして,悪い家庭では,多くの子供がそういう光景にさらされているのである。
Chapter XXI: Conclusion, n.12
The obligations of parents towards children are treated far more lightly than seems to me right by many persons who consider themselves virtuous. Given the present system of the bi-parental family, as soon as there are children it is the duty of both parties to a marriage to do everything that they can to preserve harmonious relations, even if this requires considerable self-control. But the control required is not merely, as conventional moralists pretend, that involved in restraining every impulse to unfaithfulness; it is just as important to control impulses to jealousy, ill-temper, masterfulness, and so on. There can be no doubt that serious quarrels between parents are a very frequent cause of nervous disorders in children ; therefore whatever can be done to prevent such quarrels should be done. At the same time, where one or both of the parties has not sufficient self-control to prevent disagreements from coming to the knowledge of the children, it may well be better that the marriage should be dissolved. It is by no means the case that the dissolution of a marriage is invariably the worst thing possible from the point of view of the children; indeed, it is not nearly so bad as the spectacle of raised voices, furious accusations, perhaps even violence, to which many children are exposed in bad homes.
出典: Marriage and Morals, 1929.
詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/MM21-120.HTM