And so he became tyrant; but history does not relate any consequent advantage to the poor and humble. True, he confiscated the estates of the rich, but it was to his bodyguard that he gave them. His popularity soon waned, but not his power. A few pages further on we find Grote saying: “Feeling more than ever that his dominion was repugnant to the Syracusans, and rested only on naked force, he thus surrounded himself with precautions probably stronger than any other Grecian despot had ever accumulated.” 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER06_090.HTM
グロウトは次のように言っている。「人々を騙して一時的に(でも)従属させる詐欺の機構(からくり)(machinery of fraud)は,人々の同意に反してでもそのような従属状態を永続化させようとする軍事機構(machinery of force)の前兆としてものであり -(それは)古代ギリシアの(権力の)強奪者の常套手段(手口)であった。」初期の専制政体が,一般民衆の同意なしにどこまで永続きしたかは疑わしいかもしれない。しかし,後期の専制政体 - それは,経済的というよりむしろ軍事的なものであった- については,それは確かに事実である。たとえば,ディオドロスに基づいた(典拠とした),ディオニシウス兄が台頭した時の決定的な瞬間についてのグロウトの記述をとってみよう。シラクサの軍隊は,多少とも民主的な政体の下で,敗北と不名誉をこうむっており,ディオニシウスは,激しい戦争の闘志たちの選ばれた指導者として,敗戦の将たちを処罰せよと要求していた。
“The machinery of fraud,” says Grote, “whereby the people were to be cheated into a temporary submission, as a prelude to the machinery of force whereby such submission was to be perpetuated against their consent — was the stock in trade of Grecian usurpers.” How far the earlier tyrannies were perpetuated without popular consent may be doubted, but of the later tyrannies, which were military rather than economic, this is certainly true. Take, for example, Grote’s description, based on Diodorus, of the crucial moment in the rise of Dionysius the elder. The arms of Syracuse had suffered defeat and disgrace under a more or less democratic regime, and Dionysius, the chosen leader of the champions of vigorous war, was demanding the punishment of the defeated generals. “Amidst the silence and disquietude which reigned in the Syracusan assembly, Dionysius was the first who rose to address them. He enlarged upon a topic suitable alike to the temper of his auditors and to his own views. He vehemently denounced the generals as having betrayed the security of Syracuse to the Carthaginians–and as the persons to whom the ruin of Agrigentum, together with the impending peril of every man around, was owing. He set forth their misdeeds, real and alleged, not merely with fullness and acrimony, but with a ferocious violence outstripping all the limits of legitimate debate, and intended to bring upon them a lawless murder, like the death of the generals recently at Agrigentum. ‘There they sit, the Traitors! Do not wait for legal trial or verdict, but lay hands upon them at once, and inflict upon them summary justice.’ Such a brutal exhortation … was an offence against law as well as against parliamentary order. The presiding magistrates reproved Dionysius as a disturber of order, and fined him, as they were empowered by law. But his partisans were loud in his support. Philistus not only paid down the fine for him on the spot, but publicly proclaimed that he would go on for the whole day paying all similar fines which might be imposed — and incited Dionysius to persist in such language as he thought proper. That which had begun as illegality, was now aggravated into open defiance of the law. Yet so enfeebled was the authority of the magistrates, and so vehement the cry against them, in the actual position of the city, that they were unable either to punish or repress the speaker. Dionysius pursued his harangue in a tone yet more inflammatory, not only accusing the generals of having corruptly betrayed Agrigentum, but also denouncing the conspicuous and wealthy citizens generally, as oligarchs who had tyrannical sway — who treated the many with scorn, and made their own profit out of the misfortunes of the city. Syracuse (he contended) could never be saved, unless men of a totally different character were invested with authority; men, not chosen from wealth or station, but of humble birth, belonging to the people by position, and kind in their deportment from consciousness of their own weakness. (Note: History of Greece, ch. 81.) 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER06_080.HTM
So long as it was possible for everybody to be prosperous, the weakening of tradition did more good than harm. It led, among the Greeks, to the most rapid advance in civilization that has ever occurred –with the possible exception of the last four centuries. The freedom of Greek art and science and philosophy is that of a prosperous age unhampered by superstition. But the social structure had not the toughness required to resist misfortune, and individuals had not the moral standards necessary for the avoidance of disastrous crimes when virtue could no longer bring success. A long series of wars diminished the free population and increased the number of slaves. Greece proper finally fell under the dominion of Macedonia, while Hellenic Sicily, in spite of increasingly violent revolutions, civil wars, and tyrannies, continued to struggle against the power of Carthage, and then of Rome. The Syracusan tyrannies deserve our attention, both because they afford one of the most perfect examples of naked power, and because they influenced Plato, who quarrelled with the elder Dionysius and endeavoured to make a pupil of the younger. The views of later Greeks, and of all subsequent ages, on Greek tyrants in general, were largely influenced by the unfortunate contacts of the philosophers with Dionysius the elder and his successors in Syracusan misgovernment. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER06_070.HTM
専制政治(古代ギリシアの僭主政治)の初期の時代は,鋳造硬貨(coinage)が使われ始めた時代であり,これは,金持の権力を増大させる上において,近年の信用(credit)と紙幣が与えたものと同様の影響(効果)を与えた。どれだけ真実か判断するカは私にはないが,通貨の導入は専制政治の勃興と結びついていたと,(これまで)主張されてきている(原注:P.N.エア『専制政治の起源』 P. N. Ure, The Origin of Tyranny 参照。)。確かに,銀山の所有は,借主になることを目指している者にとって,助けとなった。貨幣の使用は,新規の場合は(導入後間もないうちは),古くからの慣習をとても混乱させるものであり,それはヨーロッパ(人)の支配下に入って間もないアフリカの諸地域に見られる混乱と同様である。紀元前7~6世紀における,通貨の導入の影響(effect 効果/結果)は,商業の権力の増大及び土地を領有する貴族階級の権力の減少であった。ペルシャ人が小アジア(Asia Minor)を手に入れるまでは,古代ギリシアにおける戦争はほとんどなく,あったとしても取るに足らないものであり,生産活動の多くは奴隷によって行われることはなかった。このような状況は,経済的権力にとって理想的なもの(状況)であり,19世紀において産業主義が果たしたのほぼ同様のやり方で,伝統の支配力を弱めたのである。
Chapter VI: Naked Power, n.6
The first age of tyranny was that in which coinage first came into use, and this had the same kind of effect in increasing the power of rich men as credit and paper money have had in recent times. It has been maintained (See P. N. Ure, The Origin of Tyranny)–with what truth I am not competent to judge–that the introduction of currency was connected with the rise of tyranny; certainly the possession of silver mines was a help to any man who aimed at becoming a tyrant. The use of money, when it is new, profoundly disturbs ancient customs, as may be seen in the parts of Africa which have not been long under European control. In the seventh and sixth centuries B.C., the effect was to increase the power of commerce, and to diminish that of territorial aristocracies. Until the Persians acquired Asia Minor, wars in the Greek world were few and unimportant, and not much of the work of production was performed by slaves. The circumstances were ideal for economic power, which weakened the hold of tradition in much the same way as industrialism did in the nineteenth century. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER06_060.HTM
The word “tyrant” did not, originally, imply any bad qualities in the ruler, but only an absence of legal or traditional title. Many of the early tyrants governed wisely, and with the consent of the majority of their subjects. Their only implacable enemies, as a rule, were the aristocrats. Most of the early tyrants were very rich men, who bought their way to power, and maintained themselves more by economic than by military means. They are to be compared rather with the Medici than with the dictators of our day. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER06_050.HTM
Naked power, in the internal government of a community not lately submitted to foreign conquest, arises in two different sets of circumstances : first, where two or more fanatical creeds are contending for mastery; secondly, where all traditional beliefs have decayed, without being succeeded by new ones, so that there are no limitations to personal ambition. The former kind of case is not pure, since the adherents of the dominant creed are not subject to naked power. I shall consider it in the next chapter, under the head of revolutionary power. For the present I shall confine myself to the second kind of case. The definition of naked power is psychological, and a government may be naked in relation to some of its subjects but not in relation to others. The most complete examples known to me, apart from foreign conquest, are the later Greek tyrannies an 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER06_030.HTM
軍事的征服によって授けられた権力は,多かれ少なかれ時を経るに従って,単なる軍事的な(性格をもった)権力であることをやめる(~でなくなる)ことがよくある。ユダヤ(注:パレスチナ南部の古代ローマ領)を除いて,ローマ人の征服したすべての領土は,間もなく,ローマ帝国の忠実な臣民となり,独立したいという欲求をまったく感じなくなった。アジアとアフリカにおいては,マホメット教徒によって征服されたキリスト教諸国は,ほとんど抵抗することなく,新しい支配者に服従した。ウェールズは,イングランドの支配に次第に黙従するようになったが,アイルランドでは黙従しなかった。アルピ派の異教徒たち(Albigensian heretics )は軍事力によって征服された後,彼らの子孫は,内的(心的)にも外的(物理的)にもカトリック教会の権威に服従した。ノルマン人によるイングランド征服は,イングランドに(一つの)王家を生みだしたが,後に,王位に対する神権を持っていると考えられた(考えられるようになった)。軍事的征服は征服の後に心理的征服を伴って初めて安定を得るが,これが起こった事例は非常に多い。 (注:みすず書房版の東宮訳は「軍事的征服はその後に心理的征服を伴って初めて安定をえるものだが、しかし,実際のケースは実に種々さまざまである」と “but the cases in which this has occurred are very numerous”を誤訳している。)
Chapter 6: Naked Power, n.2
The power conferred by military conquest often ceases, after a longer or shorter period of time, to be merely military. All the provinces conquered by the Romans, except Judea, soon became loyal subjects of the Empire, and ceased to feel any desire for independence. In Asia and Africa the Christian countries conquered by the Mohammedans submitted with little reluctance to their new rulers. Wales gradually acquiesced in English rule, though Ireland did not. After the Albigensian heretics had been overcome by military force, their descendants submitted inwardly as well as outwardly to the authority of the Church. The Norman Conquest produced, in England, a royal family which, after a time, was thought to possess a Divine Right to the throne. Military conquest is stable only when it is followed by psychological conquest, but the cases in which this has occurred are very numerous. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER06_020.HTM
As the beliefs and habits which have upheld traditional power decay, it gradually gives way either to power based upon some new belief, or to “naked” power, i.e. to the kind that involves no acquiescence on the part of the subject. Such is the power of the butcher over the sheep, of an invading army over a vanquished nation, and of the police over detected conspirators. The power of the Catholic Church over Catholics is traditional, but its power over heretics who are persecuted is naked. The power of the State over loyal citizens is traditional, but its power over rebels is naked. Organizations that have a long career of power pass, as a rule, through three phases : first, that of fanatical but not traditional belief, leading to conquest; then, that of general acquiescence in the new power, which rapidly becomes traditional ; and finally that in which power, being now used against those who reject tradition, has again become naked. The character of an organization changes very greatly as it passes through these stages. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER06_010.HTM
Traditional power, when not destroyed from without, runs, almost always, through a certain development. Emboldened by the respect which it inspires, it becomes careless as regards the general approval, which it believes that it cannot ever lose. By sloth, folly, or cruelty it gradually forces men to become sceptical of its claims to divine authority. Since these claims have no better source than habit, criticism, once aroused, easily disposes of them. Some new creed, useful to the rebels, takes the place of the old one; or sometimes, as in the case of Haiti when it won freedom from the French, mere chaos succeeds. As a rule, a long period of very flagrant misgovernment is necessary before mental rebellion becomes widespread; and in many cases the rebels succeed in transferring to themselves part or the whole of the old authority. So Augustus absorbed into himself the traditional dignity of the Senate; Protestants retained the reverence for the Bible, while rejecting reverence for the Catholic Church; the British Parliament gradually acquired the power of the king, without destroying the respect for monarchy. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER05_110.HTM
フレデリック・バルバロッサ(注:神聖ローマ皇帝フリードリヒ一世, 1122- 1190)の時代のロンバルディア同盟とともに始まった商業とナショナリズムの同盟(関係)は,次第にヨーッパ全体に広まり,ロシアの二月革命(1917年2月23日,ロシアの首都ペトログラード=現在のサンクトペテルブルク,で起こった革命運動。10月革命とあわせて,ロシア革命となる。) において,その最後かつ束の間の勝利を達成した。この同盟が権力を勝ち得たところではどこでも,土地(所有)に基礎を置く世襲的な権力と敵対し,最初は君主制と同盟したが,次には君主制と敵対した。終には,王(君主)はいたるところで消えたかあるいは単なる表看板に過ぎないものと化した。いまや,ついに,ナショナリズムと商業はたもとを分かち(part company 交際をたつ;たもとを分かつ),イタリアやドイツやロシアにおいてはナショナリズムが勝利をおさめた。十二世紀のミラノに始まった自由主義運動は(このように)我が道を走ってきたのである。
Chapter V: Kingly Power, n.10
The alliance of commerce and nationalism, which began with the Lombard League in the time of Frederick Barbarossa, gradually spread over Europe, achieving its last and briefest triumph in the Russian February Revolution. Wherever it won power, it turned against hereditary power based on land, at first in alliance with the monarchy, and then in opposition to it. In the end, kings everywhere disappeared or were reduced to figure-heads. Now, at last, nationalism and commerce have parted company; in. Italy, Germany, and Russia it is nationalism that has triumphed. The Liberal movement, begun in Milan in the twelfth century, has run its course. 出典: Power, 1938. 詳細情報:https://russell-j.com/beginner/POWER05_100.HTM