牧野力「バートランド・ラッセルはどう入試問に出されたか －設問の対比」
* 出典：『英語教育』(大修館書店)1975年10月,pp.44-48.* もりや・つとむ(編著)『ラッセル予想問題と対策』
ひと頃,大学入試の英語問題にはラッセルかモーム（サマセット・モーム）を読めばよい,と言われたことをおぼえている方もあるかと思う。その当時、これを，筆者は市井の雑音ぐらいに聞き流していた。ところが,最近ある調査から,意外な事実に出会った。
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いったいなぜであろうか。(次の筆者の推察がピントはずれでなければ,幸いである。)
ラッセルの散文は世界的に名文と評価されている(モームもこれを認めていたらしい)。それは,1)簡明な文体だからである（高校卒業生にも,最低,直訳的にはできそうな構文である)。そして,2)その文に盛り込まれている文意内容は,大学生になろうとする者の知的教養にふさわしいものである(高校在学中,英語以外の教科目,例えば,国語・歴史・地理・社会・物理・・・という,英語の受験勉強に没頭するあまり,こぼされ易いものを広く理解し,消化し，自分の身につけていないと,文意把握の困難なものが少なくない)。
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というのは,全国の高校の校長によって組織されている(？)校長会が,毎年大学入試問題を検討し,その所見を出版している。これは出題する大学教授の方々にある種の示唆を与えるのかもしれない。高校側として,右(上記)の２点は特に反論すべきところであるというよりも,むしろ,逆のものではないかとも思われる。
また,次の事実は,どれだけ出題と関連があるか不明であるが，全く無関係とも思えない。
ラッセルが自ら，通俗的読み物（popular books）と分類する著書の多くが大学生用英語テキストに編注・出版され，だいたい40余種に及んでいる。教室で使われたテキストの妙味を感じた方々が試験問題に選ばれることもあるのではないだろうか。
出典三書
本文に関連するラッセルの著述は次の三書である。
(A) New Hopes for a Changing World, 1951 (George Allen and Unwin 社)
(B) Portraits from Memory, 1956 (George Allen and Unwin 社)
(C) 'Living in an Atomic Age' (中島文雄編注、英宝社，1951年）
出典原文六種
上の(A),(B),及び(C)の中から,次の(a),(b),(c),(d),(e),(f)及び(g)があげられるが,出題した14校が具体的にどの部分を選んだかは，出題一覧表に示した。
 ラッセル英単語・熟語1500 |
The present time is one in which the prevailing mood is a feeling of impotent perplexity. We see ourselves drifting towards a war that hardly any one desires - a war that, as we all know, must bring disaster to the great majority of mankind. But like a rabbit fascinated by a snake we stare at the peril without knowing what to do to avert it. （京都外大昭和36）
●(b)[(A)の第一部,第３章23ページ]
Our first human ancestors were a very rare species. They lived under precarious conditions, exposed to the rigours of the weather, to the hostility of wild beasts, and to all the dangers of famine that could be caused by drought.
They possessed no weapons, they probably had not mastered the use of fire, and if they had language of any sort it must have consisted of no more than a few cries. Their one weapon in the struggle for existence was intelligence, and inteligence at first was very far from being so powerful a weapon as it has become. (名城大昭和38)
●(c)[(A)の第一部,第３章24ページ]
The life of these early men had advantages and disadvantages as compared with the life of civilized men in our own day. They were not over-crowded; they could roam for months without fear of meeting a stranger; physical neccessity compelled them to take enough exercise, so that their lives were seldom out of order; they lived in small tribes of about a hundred individuals where everybody knew everybody, and where on the whole there was friendship within the tribe. Occasionally, no doubt, they would find themselves in conflict with another tribe, the vanquished would be exterminated, and the victors would annex their territory with the feeling that battle was great fun. But probably at first such battles were rare, because human beings were few. （福島大昭和31；北海道学芸大昭和36；名城大昭和38）
The specially human activities which distinguish man from other animals all depend upon the lessening of his bondage to physical nature. So long as he had to spend all his time in food-gathering, he could not devote much of his energy to war or politics or theology or science. These things are offshoots of the productivity of labour; they depend upon the excess of one man's production over one man's consumption of food. The greater this excess becomes, the more possible it becomes for a man to devote himself to politics and war and culture and such luxuries.（早大一文昭和30）
●(e)[(A)の第三部,第16章153ページ]
Human beings, ever since their fathers invented language, have allowed themselves to be dominated by tradition. This has been at once the main cause of progress and the main obstacle to progress. Consider it first as a cause of progress. Where should we be if each generation had to invent reading, writing and arithmetic for itself? How should we get on if arts and crafts were not handed on? Even in the most progressive age, much the greater part of our activity is, and must be, based upon tradition. We may rebel against our parents' narrow-mindedness, but we can only rise above them by standing on their shoulders.
But although respect for tradition and obedience to custom are necessary up to a point, most societies have carried them much too far, and some have brought themselves to destruction by this sole defect. Human beings change their ways much more quickly than animals do; civilized men change their ways more quickly than uncivilized men, and modern civilized men change their ways more quickly than civilized men of former ages. Civilized societies, during the last hundred and fifty years have radically transformed their physical environment, the methods by which they secure a livelihood, and the apparatus of comfort over and above the minimum necessary for survival. The prime cause of these changes has been a vast increase of knowledge and skill.（福井大昭和33；芝浦工大昭和36；高知大昭和36；関東学院大工学部昭和39；広島工業大昭和40；日本医大昭和42；名工大昭和43）
●(f)[(C)'Living in Atomic Age'(Listener, May 17～June 21, 1951) 中島文雄編注（英宝社,1951）'The Achievement of Harmony']
While mankind are subject to the threat of war, especially by the deadly methods which science is perfecting, nothing good can be secure. There is only one way of making the world safe against war, and that is to have only one armed force in the world. When this has been achieved, there will no longer be danger of serious wars, unless they were to take the form of civil wars between different parts of the international force. To prevent this, measures which are not purely military will be required. There will need to be control over education, in the sense that no country must be allowed in its schools to teach a predatory nationalism. The teaching of history everywhere should lay more stress upon the progress of man than upon national victories or defeats in contests with other nations. There should be interchange of students, so that many people, while still young enough to be not hardened in habits and prejudices, should become, intimate with people of other countries and with their ways of thought and behaviour.(京都府立大昭和43）
●(g)[(B)Portraits from Memory, 1956 の中の 'Knowledge and Wisdom']
Most people would agree that, although our age far surpasses all previous ages in knowledge, there has been no correlative increase in wisdom. But agreement ceases as soon as we attempt to define 'wisdom' and consider means of promoting it. There are several factors that contribute to wisdom. Of these I should put first a sense of proportion: the capacity to take account of all the important factors in a problem and to attach to each its due weight. The essence of wisdom is emancipation, as far as possible, from the tyrnny of the here and the now. We cannot help the egoism of our senses. Sight and sound and touch are bound up with our own bodies and cannot be made impersonal. Our emotions start similarly from ourselves. An infant feels hunger or discomfort, and is unaffected except by his own physical condition. Gradually, with the years, his horizon widens, and, in proportion as his thoughts and feelings become less personal and less concerned with his own physical states, he achieves growing wisdom. This is, of course, a matter of degree. No one can view the world with complete impartiality; and if anyone could, he would hardly be able to remain alive. But it is possible to make a continual approach towards impartiality: on the one hand, by knowing things somewhat remote in time or space; and on the other, by giving to such things their due weight in our feelings. It is this approach towards impartiality that constitutes growth in wisdom. (青山学院大経営昭和49)
| 大学 略符 | 昭和 | 出題校 | 出典 | 設問 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
ロ ハ ニ ホ ヘ ト チ リ ヌ ル ヲ ワ カ | 31年 33年 36年 同上 同上 同上 38年 39年 40年 42年 43年 同上 49年 | 早大一文 福島大 福井大 京都外大 芝浦工大 北海道学芸大 高知大 名城大 関東学院大工 広島工大 日本医大 名工大 京都府立大 青山学院大経営 | (ｄ) (ｃ) (ｅ) (ａ) (ｅ) (ｃ) (ｅ) (b)(c) (ｅ) (ｅ) (ｅ) (ｅ) (ｆ) (ｇ) | 部分訳３問 全訳 部分訳３問 全訳 部分訳３問 部分訳２問 発音，アクセント，品詞変換１問， 部分訳２問 文意一致問題 部分訳１問，文意一致問題 全訳 部分訳２問，語意一致２問 部分訳２問 語意訳５問，表題選択１問， 完成問題２問 文意一部の要約問題 |
| 備考 | (c)についてはロ，ヘ，チ，また(e)についてはハ，ホ，ト，リ， ヌ，ル，ヲの対比が可能 | |||
設問対比
英語の入試問題に英文和訳はだいたいつきもののような感じがするので,一応,全訳や部分訳についての対比から始めたい。７校がだいたい共通の箇所から出題した原文(e)に,次に,２校の出題した(c)に,それから残りの(a)と(d)とにふれる。
設問対比や設問研究をする者にとって,新しい着想や工夫の視点にふれると,その研究の努力の報いられる思いがする。たとえ設問の型が既成のもの，あるいは予想されるものであっても,原文のどこが,また,どのような設問指定をしているかによって,妙味は感じられるから,ラッセルの原文について、(イ)文意和訳,(口)語意一致,(ハ)文意一致,（ニ）文意完成,（ホ）文意一部の要約,などの設問の実情を調べることにしたい。
・原文(e)に対する全訳と部分訳 〔全訳〕
出題校「ヌ」
出題箇所 原文(e)
Human beings, ever ...obstacle to progress. (32語)
〔部分訳〕
出題校「ハ」,「ホ」,「ト」,「リ」，「ル」及び「ヲ」
出題箇所 原文(e)中
◎ Human beings,ever ... dominated by tradition. (16語)〔ホ,ヲ〕
◎ This has been ... obstacle to progress. (16語)〔ハ〕
◎ Where should we ... arithmetic for itself? (16語)〔ハ,ル〕
◎ Even in the most ... upon tradition. (20語)〔ハ〕
◎ How should we ... not handed on? (13語)〔ホ,ヲ〕
◎ We may rebel ... on their shou1ders. (20語)〔ホ,ル,リ〕
◎ But although respect ... this sole defect. (34語)〔ト〕
◎ Civilized societies, ... necessary for survival. (34語)〔ト〕
・原文(c)に対する全訳と部分訳
［全訳］
出題校「ロ」
出題箇所 原文（c）
◎ The life of ... within the tribe. (78語)〔ロ〕
[部分訳]
◎ Physical necessity compelled ... out of order. (17語）[ヘ]
◎ the victors would ... was great fun. (14語)［ヘ］
・原文（a）の全訳
◎ The present time ... to avert it. (64語)［ニ］
・原文（d）の部分訳
◎ The specially human ... to physical nature. (21語）［イ］
◎ They depend upon ... consumption of food. (15語)［イ］
◎ The greater this ... and such luxuries. (25語)［イ］
・語意和訳５問
出題箇所 原文（f）の中の下線語訳
deadly (weapon)
serious (wars)
(international) force
measures
(in the) sense
・語意一致２問［ル］
出題箇所 原文（e）
［問１］（e）の tradition の意味を説明するものとして，次の１から４までのうち，どれが最も適当か，その最も適当なものの番号数字を○で囲みなさい。
l. the action of handing down to another;
2. a story handed down from the past and connected with historical events;
3. customs, beliefs, etc., handed down by word of mouth or by example from generation to generation;
4, a custom handed down from one age or generation to another and having acquired almost the force of law
［問２］（e）の at once と同じ意味に用いられている文は，次の４つの文のうちどれであるか，該当する文の番号数字を○で囲みなさい。
1. He was ordered to leave the room at once.
2. The stranger's conversation was at once pleasing and instructive.
3. To make the matter clear, I may as well explain at once what has happened.
4. The Siberian Railway is at once the longest and best known railroad in the world.
・文意一致２問
(い)出題校〔チ〕
出題原文 (b)及び(c)
設問 次の文を読んで,次の(1)から(8)までの文中,その趣旨が本文と一致するものを３つ選びなさい。
(1) Our ancestors lived an easy life.
(2) They were attacked by beasts.
(3) They experienced no famine.
(4) They had bows and arrows.
(5) They used intelligence in the struggle for existence.
(6) They were always on good terms with another tribe.
(7) The victors felt that battle was great fun.
{8) Battle were common, because human beings were many.
(ろ)出題校〔リ〕
出題原文 (e)
設問 次のa,b,c,d,eのうち英文の大意を述べているものに○をつけなさい。また適当でないものには×をつけなさい。
a. 人間は昔から伝統に支配されてきた。それは人間の進歩に役だっている。だが伝続をあまりにも重視する場合それは弊害になる。
b. 伝統に従うことは人間の進歩を阻害する。伝統はすべて革新しなければならない。さもなければ,人間の未来は期待できない。
c. 新しい伝統を創造することは人間の進歩にとって最も必要なことである。現代人はその方向に向かって努力すべきである。
d. 人間が伝統に支配されてきたことは人間の進歩の主なる原因でもあるし,それが過度になった場合は人間の進歩の阻害ともなっている。
e. 現代人はおしなべて伝統に対して無関心である。彼らは伝統を軽蔑し無視している。
・文意一部要約１問
出題校〔カ〕
出題原文 (g)
設問 英文中 The tyranny of the here and the now が具体的にはどのようなことであるか,どうすればここから自由になれると作者は述べているかを，40字以内で説明しなさい。(句読点も40字のなかに含まれます。）
・完成問題２問
出題校〔ワ〕
出題原文 (f)
設問 英文の論旨にそうよう,それぞれa)～c)の中から適切なものをひとつ選び,文を完成せよ。選んだものの記号を○でかこめ。
To get rid of the danger of serious wars among nations, there is only one way, and it is
a) to prevent civil wars between different parts of the international force.
b) to make the world safe against war.
c) to have only one armed force in the world.
The teaching of history should lay more stress upon the progress of man than upon national victories or defeats, in order to
a) control edueation
b) prevent a predatory nationalism.
c) make students intimate with people of other countries and with their ways of thought and behaviour.
なお・発音・アクセント，品詞変換の設問は，紙面の都合で割愛する。
この対比はあくまで,参考資料の提示で,設問の当否を論ずる意図のないことはもちろんである。設問には，受験者の能力，配点上の考慮，原文の性格，他の設問との関連，出題観点などに制約される以上，簡単で安易な短絡的発言は許されないからである。むしろ,可能なかぎり多様な設問についての,意図,観点，配点,評価,関連要素の組み合わせ等々の総合的な調査資料の出現を待望する心理のあらわれの一つとでも解していただきたい。それについての前提的論議については，別の機会ににゆずりたい。(早稲田大学教授)